Jiayi Shao, Jiaying Ye, Shengyao Liu, Zachary Englhardt, Girish Narayanswamy, Vikram Iyer, Qiuyue (Shirley) Xue
6 min
Photoplethysmography (PPG) is a primary sensing modality for wearable health monitoring, but existing public datasets are predominantly wrist-centric or restricted to short, controlled laboratory sessions. Wrist-based sensors often suffer from motion artifacts and weaker optical signal quality because major blood vessels lie deeper beneath the skin. Emerging wearable form factors such as smart rings, earrings, and necklaces offer promising alternatives with high tissue perfusion or stability, yet large-scale, in-the-wild datasets comparing these simultaneous form factors have been lacking. This paper introduces the Multi-site PPG dataset to address this gap, enabling the evaluation of physiological sensing, cross-site fusion, and multimodal modeling across diverse wearable locations.
The dataset was collected from 20 participants who wore four custom-developed, unobtrusive wearable devices during their naturalistic daily routines: a smart earring, a smart ring, a smartwatch, and a smart necklace. Each device integrated identical core sensing hardware—recording two-channel reflective PPG (green and infrared), 3-axis acceleration, and temperature—while streaming data wirelessly to a smartphone application. A commercial Polar H10 chest strap worn concurrently provided reference electrocardiogram (ECG) data. The final release contains over 350 hours of raw multi-site recordings and a preprocessed modeling-ready windowed dataset comprising 8-second continuous segments with synchronized ground-truth heart rates derived via the Pan-Tompkins algorithm.
The authors benchmarked heart-rate estimation across the four body sites using six heuristic algorithms, five supervised neural models, and two self-supervised models under a leave-one-subject-out cross-validation framework. The evaluation revealed a consistent performance hierarchy across methods: earring (best accuracy), followed by the ring, watch, and necklace. For instance, the supervised DCL model achieved a mean absolute error of 2.30 bpm for the earring, 5.13 bpm for the ring, 8.37 bpm for the watch, and 8.68 bpm for the necklace. Furthermore, exploring sensor combinations showed that two-device fusion and integrating accelerometer z-axis data can improve estimation robustness for specific form factors.
This work establishes a rigorous benchmark for multi-site physiological monitoring, demonstrating that emerging form factors like smart earrings and rings can yield substantially cleaner PPG signals than traditional smartwatches during daily life. By releasing both raw and windowed datasets alongside open-source benchmarking code, the authors provide a foundational resource for advancing robust wearable health technologies, multi-site sensor fusion, and generalizable physiological machine learning models.
Wearables are widely used for mobile health monitoring, and photoplethysmography (PPG) is a key sensing modality for heart rate and related physiological measurements. However, public in-the-wild PPG datasets remain largely wrist-centric or limited to short, controlled studies, constraining research on emerging wearable form factors. We present Multi-site PPG, an in-the-wild physiological dataset collected from four custom-developed unobtrusive wearables: a smart earring, ring, watch, and necklace. Each device records green and infrared reflective PPG, 3-axis acceleration, and temperature with timestamps for cross-device alignment, while a Polar H10 chest strap provides reference electrocardiogram (ECG). Participants wore the devices for multiple days during daytime activities while continuing their normal routines. The dataset contains over 350 hours of raw data and 230-290 hours of modeling-ready 8-second windows per wearable. We benchmark heuristic, supervised, and self-supervised heart-rate estimation methods, showing substantial body-site differences: the best methods achieve mean absolute errors (MAEs) of 2.30 bpm on the earring, 5.13 bpm on the ring, 8.37 bpm on the watch, and 8.68 bpm on the necklace. We further analyze motion effects and evaluate multi-site and PPG-accelerometer fusion, demonstrating the dataset's value for robust physiological sensing across emerging wearable form factors.
Alex: So it's not just one problem, it's both at once.
Sam: Exactly. And the data backs that up. The earring and necklace spent over ninety percent of their recorded time in low-motion conditions, because the head and torso don't swing around much during a typical day. The ring and watch, by contrast, were in that calm zone only about sixty to seventy percent of the time.
Alex: And when motion goes up, accuracy goes down?
Sam: That's the general pattern across all four locations. But here's what's telling: even when you compare the ring and watch in similar low-motion conditions, the ring still wins. That points back to the underlying biology — fingers just have better blood flow near the surface.
Alex: Did combining data from multiple devices help at all?
Sam: Combining two locations gave moderate improvements, which suggests different body sites capture slightly different aspects of the pulse signal — they're somewhat complementary. But adding a third or fourth device didn't add much on top of that. There's a clear point of diminishing returns.
Alex: So more sensors doesn't automatically mean better results.
Sam: Not past a certain point. What did consistently help, though, was feeding motion data directly into the computer models. Think of it like noise-cancelling headphones, but for heart rate. The model learns how much the device is shaking at any given moment, and uses that to filter out false readings — essentially learning to say, "that spike probably isn't a real heartbeat, the device just jolted."
Alex: And I'd guess that mattered most for the devices that move around the most?
Sam: Exactly right. It was most useful for the watch and the ring. For the earring, which barely moves at all during a normal day, there wasn't much motion noise to cancel in the first place.
Alex: How did they actually build and test these computer models?
Sam: They sliced all the continuous recordings into eight-second chunks, so the models could process them in uniform pieces. They aligned those chunks with the chest strap data using timestamps, then filtered out any windows where the reference signal was missing or fell outside a plausible heart rate range.
Alex: Why throw out the bad windows rather than trying to salvage them?
Sam: Because training a model on faulty reference data teaches it wrong answers. It's like studying from a textbook full of errors — you'd memorize the mistakes. Clean training data is essential for the model to learn anything useful.
Alex: And what kinds of models did they test?
Sam: Five different neural network architectures — the main approaches to analyzing time-series data. Some scan for local patterns in the signal, some combine pattern-scanning with a kind of short-term memory, and some use attention mechanisms that weigh which parts of the signal matter most. Crucially, every model was always tested on a participant it had never seen during training. That's a rigorous way to check whether the system would actually work on a new person in the real world, rather than just on data it had already memorized.
Alex: Were there any limitations the authors flagged?
Sam: A few worth noting. Because the earring required a pierced earlobe, the participant group skewed toward female volunteers. And participants self-reported their skin tone, with the full range of human skin tones not well represented — which matters because optical sensors can behave differently depending on melanin levels in the skin. So the findings are real, but how well they generalize to everyone still needs more testing.
Alex: They're also releasing the data, I understand?
Sam: They are — over three hundred fifty hours of raw sensor data per body location, anonymized and released under a research license. That's a substantial resource for other researchers working on this problem.
Alex: So the broader picture is that where you put a sensor on the body matters enormously — and the field may need to move beyond the assumption that the wrist is the default.
Sam: The paper puts it in practical terms: future systems could dynamically route monitoring to whichever body location currently has the cleanest signal. Sitting still at a desk? The watch might be fine. Moving around? The earring or ring could take over. The evidence here suggests that kind of flexible, multi-site approach could make continuous health monitoring meaningfully more reliable in everyday life.
Alex: A useful reframe. Thanks for walking through it, Sam.
Sam: Thanks for listening to ResearchPod.