Working Memory From the Psychological and Neurosciences Perspectives: A Review

Working memory is a fundamental cognitive system responsible for the temporary storage and manipulation of information necessary for complex, goal-directed behaviors. Unlike simple short-term memory, which is limited to passive storage, working memory involves active executive control. This review synthesizes psychological models—such as Baddeley and Hitch’s multicomponent model and Cowan’s embedded-processes model—with neuroscientific evidence to provide a comprehensive overview of how the brain manages information.

Neuroscientific research consistently identifies a fronto-parietal network, including the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), and parietal cortex, as the core circuitry for working memory. Recent studies have expanded this view, implicating subcortical regions like the basal ganglia, midbrain, and cerebellum in higher-order cognitive functions. While traditional theories emphasized persistent neuronal firing as the mechanism for holding information, emerging evidence suggests that activity-silent synaptic mechanisms may also play a critical role in maintaining information in a latent state.

Working memory is highly sensitive to physiological and structural changes. Aging is associated with reduced neural efficiency and a diminished ability to modulate brain activity in response to task difficulty, often described by the Compensation-Related Utilization of Neural Circuits Hypothesis (CRUNCH). Furthermore, populations with mental health conditions (such as depression, anxiety, or schizophrenia) and developmental disorders (like ADHD or dyscalculia) exhibit distinct deficits in specific working memory subsystems. Traumatic brain injury (TBI) also disrupts this circuitry, often leading to compensatory hyper-activation or hyper-connectivity as the brain attempts to maintain performance despite structural damage.